Journal Description
Metals
Metals
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal published monthly online by MDPI. The Portuguese Society of Materials (SPM), and the Spanish Materials Society (SOCIEMAT) are affiliated with Metals and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Inspec, CAPlus / SciFinder, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Metallurgy & Metallurgical Engineering) / CiteScore - Q1 (Metals and Alloys)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 15 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.7 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2023).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
- Companion journals for Metals include: Compounds and Alloys.
Impact Factor:
2.9 (2022);
5-Year Impact Factor:
2.9 (2022)
Latest Articles
Effect of Flow Rate and Partial Pressure of Oxygen on Desulfurization of KR Slag
Metals 2024, 14(5), 516; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14050516 (registering DOI) - 28 Apr 2024
Abstract
KR (Kanbara Reaction) desulfurization slag is a solid waste that is not sufficiently utilized. This is because the KR desulfurization slag contains 1–2.5% sulfur, which is directly used in steel smelting to increase the sulfur content in molten steel. Therefore, the possibility of
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KR (Kanbara Reaction) desulfurization slag is a solid waste that is not sufficiently utilized. This is because the KR desulfurization slag contains 1–2.5% sulfur, which is directly used in steel smelting to increase the sulfur content in molten steel. Therefore, the possibility of oxidation desulfurization of KR desulfurization slag was studied in this study. Experiments were conducted to investigate the possibility of removing sulfur from used KR (Kambara Reaction) slag with oxidation. The KR slag samples were treated with oxidative desulfurization in the oxygen partial pressure range of 0.05 bar–1.00 bar, with a gas flow rate ranging from 2 L min−1 to 6 L min−1, and at a temperature of 1420 °C. X-ray diffraction (XRD), an infrared carbon sulfur analyzer, and scanning electron microscopy–energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM–EDS) analysis were used to reveal the oxidative desulfurization mechanism of KR desulfurization slag. At low oxygen pressure ( < 0.20 bar), the desulfurization rate of slag oxidized for 120 min increased with the increase in oxygen partial pressure. At high oxygen pressure ( ≥ 0.20 bar), the desulfurization rate of slag samples did not change with the change in oxygen partial pressure, and the desulfurization rate was higher than 93.5%. At low oxygen pressure ( < 0.20 bar), the residual sulfur in the slag after oxidation still existed in the slag as the CaS phase. At high oxygen pressure ( ≥ 0.20 bar), the residual sulfur in the slag oxidized from the CaS phase to the 11CaO·7Al2O3·CaS phase in the slag. The sulfur removal rate was directly correlated with the slag surface area and the flow rate of the reaction gas, and it increased with an increase in both surface area and gas flow rate.
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(This article belongs to the Topic Energy-Saving and Emission Reduction in Metallurgy)
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Open AccessReview
Titanium Surface Modification Techniques to Enhance Osteoblasts and Bone Formation for Dental Implants: A Narrative Review on Current Advances
by
Sivakorn Tuikampee, Pisaisit Chaijareenont, Pimduen Rungsiyakull and Apichai Yavirach
Metals 2024, 14(5), 515; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14050515 (registering DOI) - 28 Apr 2024
Abstract
Surface modifications for titanium, a material of choice for dental implants, can greatly alter the surface micro/nanotopography and composition of implants, leading to notable enhancements in their hydrophilicity, mechanical properties, osseointegration performance, and antibacterial performance, as well as their impacts on osteoblast activity
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Surface modifications for titanium, a material of choice for dental implants, can greatly alter the surface micro/nanotopography and composition of implants, leading to notable enhancements in their hydrophilicity, mechanical properties, osseointegration performance, and antibacterial performance, as well as their impacts on osteoblast activity and bone formation processes. This article aims to update titanium surface modification techniques for dental implants from the past to the present, along with their effects on osteoblasts and bone formation, by thoroughly summarizing findings from published studies. Peer-reviewed articles published in English consisting of in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies on titanium dental implant surface treatments were searched in Google Scholar, PubMed/MEDLINE, ScienceDirect, and the Scopus databases from January 1983 to December 2023 and included in this review. The previous studies show that implant surface roughness, condition, and hydrophilicity are crucial for osteoblast adhesion and growth. While various techniques enhance osseointegration comparably, one of the most common approaches to accomplishing these properties is sandblasting large-grit acid etching surface treatment and coating with hydroxyapatite or chitosan. In conclusion, this review points out the efficacy of different subtraction and addition techniques in enhancing the surface properties of titanium dental implants, promoting favorable outcomes in terms of osteoblast activity and bone formation in various degrees. However, most existing studies predominantly compare treated and non-treated titanium, revealing a need for more comprehensive studies comparing the effects of various modification techniques. Moreover, further investigation of factors playing a role in the dynamic osseointegration process in addition to osteoblasts and their functions, as well as improved surface modification techniques for the treatment of compromised patients, is greatly required.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Manufacture, Mechanical Properties and Metallurgy of Metallic Biomaterials (2nd Edition))
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Open AccessArticle
Improving Maraging Steel 350 Machinability via Wiper Insert-Enhanced Face Milling
by
Adel T. Abbas, Mohamed O. Helmy, Khalid F. Alqosaibi, Shahid Parvez, Ali S. Hasan and Ahmed Elkaseer
Metals 2024, 14(5), 514; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14050514 (registering DOI) - 28 Apr 2024
Abstract
Despite the prevalent application of 18% Ni maraging steel in critical sectors such as aerospace and automotive due to its unique characteristics, including high ductility, yield strength, and hardenability, its machining presents enormous challenges, categorizing it as a difficult-to-machine material. The cutting tool’s
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Despite the prevalent application of 18% Ni maraging steel in critical sectors such as aerospace and automotive due to its unique characteristics, including high ductility, yield strength, and hardenability, its machining presents enormous challenges, categorizing it as a difficult-to-machine material. The cutting tool’s geometry is crucial in machining, significantly affecting chip formation, cutting forces, power consumption, and obtainable surface quality. In particular, wiper insert technology, characterized by its multi-radius design, offers an increased contact area compared to conventional inserts, potentially enhancing the quality of the machined surface. This study explores the effectiveness of wiper inserts in the face-milling of maraging steel 350, conducting a comparative analysis across three distinct machining setups. These setups vary by alternating the number of wiper and conventional inserts within the same cutter, thereby examining the influence of insert configuration on machining outcomes. The research employs a reliable and well-established statistical approach to evaluate how different variables, such as cutting speed and feed rate, affect surface quality, power consumption, and material removal rate (MRR). It also sheds light on the material removal mechanisms facilitated by each type of insert. The findings reveal that incorporating a higher number of wiper inserts significantly enhances the surface finish but concurrently increases power consumption. Thus, the study successfully identifies an optimal set of process parameters that attain a balance between achieving superior surface quality and maintaining energy efficiency in the machining of maraging steel 350. This balance is crucial for optimizing manufacturing processes while adhering to the stringent quality and sustainability standards required in aerospace and automotive manufacturing.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Machinability Analysis and Modeling of Metal Cutting)
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Open AccessArticle
Effect of Storage Conditions on the Stability of Colloidal Silver Solutions Prepared by Biological and Chemical Methods
by
Oksana Velgosova, Peter Varga, Dana Ivánová, Maksym Lisnichuk and Mária Hudá
Metals 2024, 14(5), 513; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14050513 (registering DOI) - 28 Apr 2024
Abstract
The research aimed to observe the influence of the storage conditions of silver colloidal solutions prepared by biological (green) and chemical methods on their long-term stability. Green methods for reducing and stabilizing silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) use natural substances. The rosemary leaf extract was
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The research aimed to observe the influence of the storage conditions of silver colloidal solutions prepared by biological (green) and chemical methods on their long-term stability. Green methods for reducing and stabilizing silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) use natural substances. The rosemary leaf extract was used for AgNPs synthesis, and prepared nanoparticles were spherical (average size of 12 nm). In the chemical method, commercial chemicals (NaBH4, TSC, PVP, and H2O2) were used, and two colloids were prepared; the first contained spherical nanoparticles with an average size of 8 nm, and the second triangular prisms with an average size of 35 nm. The prepared colloids were stored under four conditions: at room temperature in the light and the dark, and at a temperature of 5 °C (refrigerator) in the light and the dark. The results confirmed the influence of storage conditions on the stability of nanoparticles. Colloids stored at 5 °C in the dark show the best stability. However, differences in stability dependent on the shape of nanoparticles prepared by chemical method were also observed; triangular nanoparticles showed the least stability. Methods such as UV–vis spectrophotometry, TEM, and EDX were used to analyze the nanoparticles before and after storage.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Nanostructured Metallic Materials)
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Open AccessFeature PaperArticle
Optimizing Stainless Steel Bearings: Enhancement of Stainless Steel Bearing Fatigue Life by Low-Temperature Forming
by
Alexander Heinrich Bodewig, Florian Pape and Gerhard Poll
Metals 2024, 14(5), 512; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14050512 (registering DOI) - 28 Apr 2024
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A proposed low-temperature forging method is presented to enhance stainless steel bearings by creating a martensitic subsurface layer, significantly boosting bearing fatigue life due to increased surface hardness. This technique induces beneficial residual stresses, particularly in axial bearings, streamlining their construction and improving
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A proposed low-temperature forging method is presented to enhance stainless steel bearings by creating a martensitic subsurface layer, significantly boosting bearing fatigue life due to increased surface hardness. This technique induces beneficial residual stresses, particularly in axial bearings, streamlining their construction and improving machine elements. Challenges persist, especially with radial bearings, but simplicity in axial bearing forging promotes compact, resource-efficient facility construction. Future research will focus on applying this technique to axial bearing washers, potentially replicating success in other bearing components. Despite the energy expenditure on cooling during forging, the substantial increase in bearing fatigue life offsets this, enhancing overall durability and reliability of critical machine components. Integration of this forging technique into bearing fabrication appears seamless, offering a promising trade-off between energy use and enhanced performance.
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Open AccessArticle
Nano- and Submicron-Sized TiB2 Particles in Al–TiB2 Composite Produced in Semi-Industrial Self-Propagating High-Temperature Synthesis Conditions
by
Aleksey Matveev, Vladimir Promakhov, Nikita Schulz, Vladislav Bakhmat and Timur Turanov
Metals 2024, 14(5), 511; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14050511 (registering DOI) - 28 Apr 2024
Abstract
This paper investigates the structure and phase composition of Al–TiB2 metal matrix composites prepared from the Al–Ti–B system powder using self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS) in semi-industrial conditions (the amount of the initial powder mixture was 1000 g). The samples produced in semi-industrial
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This paper investigates the structure and phase composition of Al–TiB2 metal matrix composites prepared from the Al–Ti–B system powder using self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS) in semi-industrial conditions (the amount of the initial powder mixture was 1000 g). The samples produced in semi-industrial conditions do not differ from the laboratory samples, and consist of the aluminum matrix and TiB2 ceramic particles. The temperature rise leads to the growth in the average size of TiB2 particles from 0.4 to 0.6 µm as compared to the laboratory samples. SHS-produced composites are milled to the average particle size of 42.3 µm. The powder particles are fragmented, their structure is inherited from the SHS-produced Al–TiB2 metal matrix composite. The obtained powder can be used as the main raw material and additive in selective laser sintering, vacuum sintering, and hot pressing products. It is worth noting that these products can find their own application in the automotive industry: brake pads, drums, rail discs, etc.
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(This article belongs to the Topic Modern Material Technologies Intended for Industrial Applications)
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Open AccessArticle
A Laser-Induced TIG Arc Narrow-Gap Welding Technique for TC4 Titanium Alloy Thick Plates Based on the Spatial Position Control of Laser, Arc and Filler Wire
by
Gang Song, Zhijie Xu, Qiang Lang, Xin Liu, Hongyang Wang and Liming Liu
Metals 2024, 14(5), 510; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14050510 - 26 Apr 2024
Abstract
In this paper, a novel laser-induced TIG arc narrow-gap welding technology is proposed for thick plates of TC4 titanium alloy. The feasibility of achieving high-performance welding joints is investigated by adjusting the spatial deviation position of the laser, arc, and filler wire. The
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In this paper, a novel laser-induced TIG arc narrow-gap welding technology is proposed for thick plates of TC4 titanium alloy. The feasibility of achieving high-performance welding joints is investigated by adjusting the spatial deviation position of the laser, arc, and filler wire. The results exhibited remarkable capabilities. By augmenting the laser-arc malposition, a stable deflection of the arc can be achieved, resulting in enhanced heat input to the sidewall adjacent to the laser side and improved fusion capability. Moreover, an inclined weld can be obtained through increased malposition between the filler wire and arc, which helps to improve interlayer fusion and suppress porosity defects. This method, involving alternating bilateral offsets between passes, successfully achieved narrow-gap welding of 24 mm-thick TC4 titanium alloy with an average tensile strength of 880.68 MPa (equivalent to 95.05% of base material strength). Therefore, this technology exhibits promising potential as an automated welding technique for achieving high-quality narrow-gap welding in titanium alloys.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser Processing and Surface Modification of Materials (Volume 2))
Open AccessArticle
Investigations on the Johnson-Cook Constitutive and Damage-Fracture Model Parameters of a Q345C Steel
by
Fengquan Hu, Xin Liu, Boshi Wang and Yong Xiang
Metals 2024, 14(5), 509; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14050509 - 26 Apr 2024
Abstract
Due to the rapid development of high-speed trains, the service safety of vehicle body materials and structures has become a focal point in transport and impact engineering. Numerical simulations on the collision resistance of vehicle materials and structures are crucial for the safety
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Due to the rapid development of high-speed trains, the service safety of vehicle body materials and structures has become a focal point in transport and impact engineering. Numerical simulations on the collision resistance of vehicle materials and structures are crucial for the safety assessment and optimal structural design of high-speed trains but have not been fully investigated due to the lack of damage model parameters. This study focuses on the Johnson-Cook (J-C) constitutive and damage-fracture models of a typical vehicle material, Q345C steel. A series of mechanical tests are conducted on the Q345C steel, including the quasi-static and dynamic compression/tension tests, quasi-static tension tests at different temperatures, and fracture tests along different stress paths, using the material test system and the split Hopkinson pressure/tension bar. Then, the parameters of the Johnson-Cook constitutive and damage-fracture models are calibrated based on the experimental results. In terms of the damage parameters related to stress paths, a new method of combining experiments and simulations is proposed to obtain the real, local fracture strains of the Q345C steel samples. This method allows the measurements of equivalent plastic strain and stress triaxiality histories under nonlinear stress paths, which are hardly accessible from individual experiments, and facilitates the accurate calibration of stress-path-related damage parameters. In addition, a high-speed plate penetration test is used to validate the J-C parameters, which can be directly implemented in the commercial finite element software Abaqus. The projectile trajectories from the simulation and experiment agree well with each other, demonstrating the reliability of the model parameters for impact scenarios and the efficiency of the experimental procedures utilized for calibration.
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Open AccessArticle
Modeling Metallic Fatigue Data Using the Birnbaum–Saunders Distribution
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Zaid Sawlan, Marco Scavino and Raúl Tempone
Metals 2024, 14(5), 508; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14050508 - 26 Apr 2024
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This work employs the Birnbaum–Saunders distribution to model the fatigue-life of metallic materials under cyclic loading and compares it with the normal distribution. Fatigue-limit models are fitted to three datasets of unnotched specimens of 75S-T6 aluminum alloys and carbon laminate with different loading
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This work employs the Birnbaum–Saunders distribution to model the fatigue-life of metallic materials under cyclic loading and compares it with the normal distribution. Fatigue-limit models are fitted to three datasets of unnotched specimens of 75S-T6 aluminum alloys and carbon laminate with different loading types. A new equivalent stress definition that accounts for the effect of the experiment type is proposed. The results show that the Birnbaum–Saunders distribution consistently outperforms the normal distribution in fitting the fatigue data and provides more accurate predictions of fatigue-life and survival probability.
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Open AccessArticle
Asymmetric Shape Control Ability and Mutual Influence of the S6-High Cold Rolling Mill
by
Tieheng Yuan, Wenquan Sun, Ruichun Guo and Tingsong Yang
Metals 2024, 14(5), 507; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14050507 (registering DOI) - 26 Apr 2024
Abstract
The control of the asymmetric shape of strips has always been an important and difficult part of the production of cold rolling strips. In this paper, the S6-High cold rolling mill is taken as the research object. A finite element model of this
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The control of the asymmetric shape of strips has always been an important and difficult part of the production of cold rolling strips. In this paper, the S6-High cold rolling mill is taken as the research object. A finite element model of this mill is constructed using ABAQUS 2022 software, and a multistage working condition simulation analysis is carried out. The independent effects of asymmetric Intermediate Roll Bending (IRB) and asymmetric Intermediate Roll Shifting (IRS) on the strip shape are investigated by constructing an asymmetric convexity evaluation index. The equivalent relationship between the asymmetric roll bending and the asymmetric roll shifting was determined by analysing the coupling effect of the benchmark bending and shifting rollers on their asymmetric shape control characteristics. The on-site application shows that optimizing the amount of preset asymmetric shape control can significantly improve the asymmetric situation of the shape, providing theoretical guidance for the asymmetric shape control of the S6-High cold rolling mill.
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(This article belongs to the Section Metal Casting, Forming and Heat Treatment)
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The Influence of Aging Precipitates on the Mechanical Properties of Al–Li Alloys and Microstructural Analysis
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Ganghui Li, Wei Xiao, Xiwu Li, Kai Wen, Guanjun Gao, Lizhen Yan, Yanan Li, Hongwei Yan, Yongan Zhang, Xingquan Wang and Baiqing Xiong
Metals 2024, 14(5), 506; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14050506 - 26 Apr 2024
Abstract
In this work, the evolution of mechanical properties of binary Al–Li alloys with four approximately equal gradient Li contents (0.91–3.98 wt.%) under aging conditions is thoroughly investigated. The alloys undergo aging treatments at 175 °C for x hours (x = 0–120 h), and
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In this work, the evolution of mechanical properties of binary Al–Li alloys with four approximately equal gradient Li contents (0.91–3.98 wt.%) under aging conditions is thoroughly investigated. The alloys undergo aging treatments at 175 °C for x hours (x = 0–120 h), and the peak-aged times of the four alloys are 6 h, 12 h, 48 h and 48 h, respectively, as the Li concentration increases. Both in the solution-treated and peak-aged states, the elastic modulus of binary Al–Li alloys exhibits an approximately linear increase with increasing Li content, consistent with trends predicted by density functional theory (DFT) calculations. Due to the presence of Al3Li precipitates, the modulus of higher-Li-concentration alloys in the peak-aged state increases by approximately 1.4–2.5% compared with that of alloys in the solution-treated state. Additionally, the study finds that increasing Li content significantly enhances the tensile strength and yield strength of the alloy but decreases its ductility, leading to a transition in fracture mode from ductile to brittle, as evidenced by a microscopic analysis of fracture surfaces. Under peak-aged (175 °C/48 h), the alloy with the highest Li content exhibits the maximum tensile strength of 341 MPa and a yield strength of 296 MPa, while its elongation is the lowest at 2.1%. These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the effects of aging precipitates on the mechanical properties of Al–Li alloys, providing fundamental guidance for the design of future generations of Al–Li alloys.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Lightweight Alloys)
Open AccessArticle
Effect of Initial Microstructure on the Temperature Dependence of the Flow Stress and Deformation Microstructure under Uniaxial Compression of Ti-407
by
Luis Barboza, Enrique López, Hugo Guajardo and Armando Salinas
Metals 2024, 14(5), 505; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14050505 - 26 Apr 2024
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In this study, the influence of initial microstructure and deformation temperature on the flow stress behavior and microstructural evolution of TIMETAL®407 (Ti-407) alloy are investigated. For this purpose, compression cylinders were β-annealed at 940 °C and then cooled to room temperature
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In this study, the influence of initial microstructure and deformation temperature on the flow stress behavior and microstructural evolution of TIMETAL®407 (Ti-407) alloy are investigated. For this purpose, compression cylinders were β-annealed at 940 °C and then cooled to room temperature using furnace cooling, static air, and water quenching to promote three initial microstructures with different α lath thicknesses. The annealed cylinders were compressed isothermally in the range of 750 °C to 910 °C at a constant crosshead speed of 0.05 mm/s up to an engineering strain of −0.8. The resulting stress–strain curves are discussed in terms of the morphology and distribution of the α and β phases. It was found that flow stress is inversely proportional to deformation temperature for all initial microstructures. At the lowest temperatures, compressive yield strength was higher in water-quenched and air-cooled samples than in furnace-cooled specimens, suggesting that the acicular α-phase morphology obtained by rapid cooling could enhance mechanical strength by hindering dislocation motion. Two high-temperature flow regimes were determined based on the shape of the flow stress curves, indicating microstructural changes occurring during deformation. At higher temperatures, the effect of the initial microstructure is negligible as the primary α phase is transformed to the β phase at around 850 °C irrespective of the initial α-lath thickness.
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Open AccessArticle
Insight into the Hot Corrosion Behavior of FeMnCrSi/TiC Coatings at 900 °C
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Xu Tang, Lei Li, Ze Huang, Jieji Zhou, Yonghuang Qin, Shiyang Zhao, Da Liu, Zhengbing Xu, Jianmin Zeng, Hongqun Tang and Youbin Wang
Metals 2024, 14(5), 504; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14050504 - 26 Apr 2024
Abstract
This study explores the deposition of an Fe-MnCrSi/TiC coating on 45 steel surfaces using high-velocity arc spraying technology, examining the microstructure and hot corrosion behavior of the resultant layer. The microstructure of the FeMnCrSi/TiC coating primarily consists of an α-Fe (BCC) solid solution,
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This study explores the deposition of an Fe-MnCrSi/TiC coating on 45 steel surfaces using high-velocity arc spraying technology, examining the microstructure and hot corrosion behavior of the resultant layer. The microstructure of the FeMnCrSi/TiC coating primarily consists of an α-Fe (BCC) solid solution, composed of Fe, Mn, Cr, Si, C, and other elements, with a minor presence of β-Fe (FCC) solid-solution phase and unmelted TiC particles. Following 100 h of cyclic 900 °C hot corrosion, Mn on the coating surface preferentially oxidizes, forming a manganese-rich oxide layer. This process reduces the oxygen partial pressure (O2) within the coating, prompting the formation of a dense Cr2O3 layer on the inner side of the oxide layer. Concurrently, the rapid diffusion of Mn and Cr elements triggers the generation of Mn- and Cr-deficient regions at the metal/oxide layer interface, inducing the transformation of the coated metal primary matrix from an FCC + BCC dual phase to an α-Fe (BCC) single phase. After the reaction, the hot corrosion weight gain of the coating reached 12.43 mg/cm2, approximately one-fourteenth of the weight gain of the 45 steel substrates. This weight gain adheres to the parabolic law, suggesting that the FeMnCrSi/TiC coating exhibits excellent corrosion resistance under the given conditions.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surface Treatment and Functionalization of Metal Materials: Electrochemical, Catalytic, Bioactivity, Corrosion and Wear Behaviour)
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Open AccessArticle
Crystal Plasticity Finite Element Analyses on the Formability of AA6061 Aluminum Alloy with Different Ageing Treatments
by
Huai Wang, Ho-Won Lee, Seong-Hoon Kang and Dong-Kyu Kim
Metals 2024, 14(5), 503; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14050503 - 26 Apr 2024
Abstract
Different ageing treatments have been developed to achieve targeted properties in aluminum alloys through altering microstructures. However, there is a lack of understanding regarding the effect of ageing treatments on the formability of these alloys. In this study, we employed crystal plasticity finite
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Different ageing treatments have been developed to achieve targeted properties in aluminum alloys through altering microstructures. However, there is a lack of understanding regarding the effect of ageing treatments on the formability of these alloys. In this study, we employed crystal plasticity finite element (CPFE) modeling, in conjunction with the Marciniak-Kuczynski (M-K) approach, to investigate the effects of ageing treatments on the mechanical properties and formability of AA6061 aluminum alloy. The as-received sheet was in the T6 heat treatment state, which was subjected to artificial ageing and pre-ageing, respectively, to achieve two age-hardened alloys with modified precipitation states. The microstructures and crystallographic textures of the three alloys were measured using the electron backscattering diffraction (EBSD) technique, and uniaxial tensile tests were performed along the rolling direction (RD), transverse direction (TD), and diagonal direction (DD, 45° to the RD) for each alloy. The forming limit curve (FLC) of the as-received alloy was determined using the Nakazima test. The dependence of mechanical strength, tensile ductility, and work-hardening behavior on the ageing treatments was clarified. Then, the tensile test results were utilized to calibrate the modeling parameters used in the CPFE model, whereas the FLC predictability of the developed model was validated with the experimental one. In the formability analysis, the effects of the ageing treatment on the FLC exhibit a notable dependency on loading paths, and the pre-aged alloy exhibits better formability than the other two at the plane strain tension state, thanks to its high work-hardening levels. In addition, the deformed textures along the different loading paths and the effects of the initial texture on the FLC are also discussed.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Modeling and Simulation in Metal Forming)
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Open AccessArticle
A Study of {10-12} Twinning Activity Associated with Stress State in Mg-3Al-1Zn Alloy during Compression
by
Boqin Lu, Wei Wang, Jinyi Yao, Liping Deng, Lei Xiao and Bingshu Wang
Metals 2024, 14(5), 502; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14050502 - 25 Apr 2024
Abstract
An eight-sided prism sample, obtained from a hot-rolled AZ31 magnesium alloy sheet, was compressed at room temperature along the transverse direction to investigate the influence of local strain on twinning behavior using electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) measurements, hardness distribution, and metallographic observations. The
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An eight-sided prism sample, obtained from a hot-rolled AZ31 magnesium alloy sheet, was compressed at room temperature along the transverse direction to investigate the influence of local strain on twinning behavior using electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) measurements, hardness distribution, and metallographic observations. The octagonal surface of the sample was divided into distinct regions based on hardness distribution and metallographic observations. Combined analysis of the Schmid factor (SF) and the strain compatibility factor (m’) was employed to study twin variant selection. Basal on SF ratio distribution, the Schmid factor criterion, can predict over 75% of observed twin variants in regions A and D (normal stress samples). In contrast, 64% of twin variant selection behavior in region C (shear stress sample) can be effectively explained using a pure shear model. Twin variants with high strain compatibility factors may prefer activation to reduce stress concentration. The strain compatibility factor is more appropriate than the Schmid factor for analyzing the effect of local strain on the selection behavior of twin variants.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deformation and Phase Transformation Mechanism of Metallic Materials)
Open AccessArticle
Impact Toughness Dependent on Annealing Temperatures in 0.16C-6.5Mn Forged Steel for Flywheel Rotors
by
Tinghui Man, Jun Wang, Hongshan Zhao and Han Dong
Metals 2024, 14(5), 501; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14050501 - 25 Apr 2024
Abstract
For the application of forged medium-Mn steels on flywheel rotors, the effect of annealing temperatures from 300 °C to 650 °C on the impact toughness of 0.16C-6.5Mn forged steel was investigated to demonstrate the microstructural characteristics and austenite reverse transformation determining the impact
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For the application of forged medium-Mn steels on flywheel rotors, the effect of annealing temperatures from 300 °C to 650 °C on the impact toughness of 0.16C-6.5Mn forged steel was investigated to demonstrate the microstructural characteristics and austenite reverse transformation determining the impact toughness. The results obtained through standard Charpy V-notch impact tests at ambient temperature show that the impact absorbed energy holds at lower than 10 J almost constantly at annealing temperatures of 300 °C to 500 °C, and a representative intergranular fracture is presented. At an annealing temperature of 600 °C, the impact absorbed energy increases to 147 J, with the ductile fracture characteristics showing plenty of fine dimples, and the high impact toughness is attributed to the high volume fraction above 30% and the moderate stability of reverted austenite. Subsequently, the annealing temperature rises higher than 600 °C, the impact absorbed energy decreases, and the fracture morphology shows brittleness characterized by more flat facets of intergranular fractures and small quasi-cleavage facets, presumably corresponding to the insufficient transformation and twinning-induced plasticity effect due to weakening the Mn partitioning from quenched martensite to reverted austenite, which results in lower austenitic stability. Furthermore, the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature (DBTT) of the 0.16C-6.5Mn forged steel annealed at 600 °C, which holds the highest impact absorbed energy, and is explored for the possibility of flywheel rotor application in a service environment. The DBTT reaches −21 °C, obtained through the Boltzmann function, and the impact absorbed energy is approximately 72 J.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microstructure—Mechanical Property Relationships in High-Strength Steels)
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Open AccessArticle
Laser Powder Bed Fusion Processing of Low Cost CoCrFeNiMoxNby High Entropy Alloys with Promising High-Temperature Properties via In Situ Alloying Commercial Powders
by
S. Venkatesh Kumaran and José Manuel Torralba
Metals 2024, 14(5), 500; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14050500 - 25 Apr 2024
Abstract
A blend of only commercial powders, including Ni625, CoCrF75, and 316L, were used as the raw material for fabricating non-equiatomic CoCrFeNiMoxNby high entropy alloys (HEAs) through laser powder bed fusion (PBF-LB/M) via in situ alloying, instead of using pure elemental
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A blend of only commercial powders, including Ni625, CoCrF75, and 316L, were used as the raw material for fabricating non-equiatomic CoCrFeNiMoxNby high entropy alloys (HEAs) through laser powder bed fusion (PBF-LB/M) via in situ alloying, instead of using pure elemental powders, thus reducing the raw materials cost. The rapid cooling inherent in the PBF-LB/M process facilitated the dissolution of Mo and Nb, resulting in a single FCC phase characterized by high relative densities. High-temperature tensile tests were conducted at room temperature, 700 °C, 800 °C, and 900 °C, revealing mechanical properties that surpassed those reported in existing HEA literature. The remarkable strength of the HEAs developed in this study primarily stemmed from the incorporation of Mo and Nb, leading to the precipitation of Mo and Nb-rich lave phases at elevated temperatures. While constraining elongation when confined to grain boundaries, these precipitates enhanced strength without compromising elongation when distributed throughout the matrix. This work is a feasibility study to explore the usage of commodity compositions from the market to develop HEAs using PBF-LB/M, which opens the possibility of using scraps to further the development of new materials. Consequently, this study presents a rapid and cost-effective approach for HEA development, improving efficiency and sidestepping the direct utilization of critical raw metals for sustainable manufacturing. Moreover, this work also underscores the outstanding mechanical performance of these HEAs at high temperatures, paving the way for the design of innovative alloys for future high-temperature applications.
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(This article belongs to the Section Powder Metallurgy)
Open AccessArticle
Study of Tuyere Combustion Flame Temperature in Vanadium and Titanium Blast Furnaces by Machine Vision and Colorimetric Thermometry
by
Haoyu Cai, Ziming Zhu and Dongdong Zhou
Metals 2024, 14(5), 499; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14050499 - 25 Apr 2024
Abstract
The steel industry is an important foundation of the national economy and the livelihood of the people, producing a large amount of carbon dioxide gas, accounting for about 70% of the carbon dioxide gas generated in the steel industry, which occurs during the
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The steel industry is an important foundation of the national economy and the livelihood of the people, producing a large amount of carbon dioxide gas, accounting for about 70% of the carbon dioxide gas generated in the steel industry, which occurs during the ironmaking process. Therefore, the key technology to reduce the pollution and improve competitiveness is to increase the stability of blast furnace production and the quality of hot metal. Since the operation requirements for temperature control in the vanadium-titanium blast furnace are dramatically different compared to the traditional ones due to the low fluidity of vanadium-titanium slag, maintaining the required hot metal temperature within a narrow range with smaller fluctuations is essential. In addition, the adjustment parameters of the lower part have a significant influence on the tuyere combustion flame temperature during the daily operation of blast furnaces. At present, there is no relevant research on the online detection and analysis of vanadium-titanium blast furnace tuyere combustion flame temperature. In this study, the temperature of four tuyeres in a 500 m3 vanadium and titanium blast furnace at Jianlong Steel was detected by an online detection system. The tuyere combustion flame temperature was then calculated using colorimetric temperature measuring methodology at various times and at four distinct locations. After that, the calibration analyses, imaging parameter and the temperature tendencies in different directions of the blast furnace were investigated. This study not only offers new methods for understanding the regularity of operation and increasing the degree of visualization in vanadium and titanium smelting blast furnaces but also provides technical support for intelligent and low-carbon operation in blast furnaces.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Smelting Technology and Prospects)
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Open AccessArticle
Experimental Investigation of Phase Equilibria in the Ti-Cr-V System at 1000–1200 °C
by
Shiyu Fu, Jingjing Wang and Xiao-Gang Lu
Metals 2024, 14(5), 498; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14050498 - 25 Apr 2024
Abstract
Ti-Cr-V-based alloys have been utilized across various domains, including aerospace structural and functional materials and hydrogen storage materials. Investigating the phase relations in the Ti-Cr-V system is significant in supporting the material design for these applications. In the present work, the isothermal sections
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Ti-Cr-V-based alloys have been utilized across various domains, including aerospace structural and functional materials and hydrogen storage materials. Investigating the phase relations in the Ti-Cr-V system is significant in supporting the material design for these applications. In the present work, the isothermal sections at 1000, 1100, and 1200 °C for the Ti-Cr-V system were precisely determined through a systematic investigation using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The phase region of Cr2Ti was entirely elucidated for the first time. As the temperature decreased from 1200 to 1000 °C, the V solubility range of Cr2Ti increased from 5.3 wt.% to 10.0 wt.%, while the Ti solubility range essentially remained constant at approximately 31.0–33.9 wt.%. In addition, it was suggested that the stable structure of Cr2Ti was C36 at 1200 °C and C15 at 1000 and 1100 °C. The present work will support thermodynamic re-assessment research.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermodynamic Assessment of Alloy Systems)
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Open AccessArticle
Microstructure and Physico-Mechanical Properties of Biocompatible Titanium Alloy Ti-39Nb-7Zr after Rotary Forging
by
Anatoly Illarionov, Galymzhan Mukanov, Stepan Stepanov, Viktor Kuznetsov, Roman Karelin, Vladimir Andreev, Vladimir Yusupov and Andrei Korelin
Metals 2024, 14(5), 497; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14050497 - 24 Apr 2024
Abstract
The evolution of microstructure, phase composition and physico-mechanical properties of the biocompatible Ti-39Nb-7Zr alloy (wt.%) after severe plastic deformation by rotary forging (RF) was studied using various methods including light optical microscopy, scanning and transmission electron microscopies, X-ray diffraction, microindentation, tensile testing and
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The evolution of microstructure, phase composition and physico-mechanical properties of the biocompatible Ti-39Nb-7Zr alloy (wt.%) after severe plastic deformation by rotary forging (RF) was studied using various methods including light optical microscopy, scanning and transmission electron microscopies, X-ray diffraction, microindentation, tensile testing and investigation of thermophysical properties during continuous heating. The hot-rolled Ti-39Nb-7Zr with initial single β-phase structure is subjected to multi-pass RF at 450 °C with an accumulated degree of true deformation of 1.2, resulting in the formation of a fibrous β-grain structure with imperfect 500 nm subgrains characterized by an increased dislocation density. Additionally, nano-sized α-precipitates formed in the body and along the β-grain boundaries. These structural changes resulted in an increase in microhardness from 215 HV to 280 HV and contact modulus of elasticity from 70 GPa to 76 GPa. The combination of strength and ductility of Ti-39Nb-7Zr after RF approaches that of the widely used Ti-6Al-4V ELI alloy in medicine, however, Ti-39Nb-7Zr does not contain elements with limited biocompatibility and has a modulus of elasticity 1.5 times lower than Ti-6Al-4V ELI. The temperature dependences of physical properties (elastic modulus, heat capacity, thermal diffusivity) of the Ti-39Nb-7Zr alloy after RF are considered and sufficient thermal stability of the alloy up to 450 °C is demonstrated.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Phase Transformation and Mechanical Properties of Titanium Alloy)
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